Li Yuanhong and Parliament ruled in a vacuum. They had virtually little control over the whole country. In 1916, the petty leaders of the various provinces assumed control of their own "mini-kingdoms." However, they had no political parties to support them. Some were intelligent men, while others were just glorified bandits. Three of the strongest warlords were Zhang Zuolin, Wu Peifu, and Feng Yuxiang. Loyalty meant little to most of them. Feng, for example, once fought under Wu Peifu but then split from him to form his own group. There was constant pillaging of farms and shops, along with indiscriminate slaughter. Although the warlords only oversaw local areas, the chaos they produced threatened to continue for years to come.

One of the most troubling of the warlord groups was the Beiyang Army, which consisted of the loyal followers of the Qing dynasty. After the dynasty had collapsed, the Beiyang remained a threat because they were experienced and well-organized.

Post Xinhai Revolution, the Chinese Nationalists under Sun and others were not able to effectively rule outside of the coastal cities. In the vast hinterlands and central cities of China, warlords, who were now even more populous and powerful since the overthrow of the Qing, had vast areas of the country in their hands. Without them, the Chinese Nationalist Party could not rule at all and were forced to negotiate and compromise with warlords all over the country.